Pre-Islamic antiquities

The largest pre-Islamic sites are usually located either in the middle of the wadi on the silt or close to the cliff wall. Some of them are very extensive, with archaeological levels reaching 10 m in places. Because of their location on the silt, all sites are badly eroded from the action of flash floods (sa'ils), with the result that each site consists of a series of small mounds separated from each other by intervals of varying depth, each mound preserving the remains of one or two buildings.

Natural erosion exposes the dressed blocks of ancient monuments, which are immediately carried away for use in modern construction. The remaining debris is then often removed by local farmers to create agricultural fields, which are frequently leveled for ploughing!

It is therefore going to be of the greatest importance to take immediate steps to prevent pillage. This will involve demarcation of the protected area with fences and the employment of resident guards.

Protection of the sites will further necessitate the urgent study of measures which might be taken to prevent flash flooding of the sites, followed by the erection of diversion dams, banks and channels wherever necessary. At the same time the exposed monuments will have to be conserved against further decay.

Subsequently, a systematic survey of the entire wadi will be undertaken in order to locate, map and survey on the ground all pre-Islamic sites which can be identified. This will lead to a programme of further archaeological study and excavation. All those excavated sites judged interesting enough will be consolidated with a view to their permanent preservation and their presentation to the public, for which purpose roads, parking areas and paths will be built, together with suitable planting and labeling of the sites. Finally, the provision of amenities for visitors will be undertaken.

A selection of some of the most important pre-Islamic sites to be conserved in the first stage of the work is discussed below.

Raybün

An extensive, major ancient town site built in the middle of the wadi, on silty soil. Noticeable among its ruins are the bases of three of the four vertical pillars of the portico of a temple, at the top of a broken flight of stone steps leading up to it. Many fragments of South Arabian inscriptions may be found lying on the surface of the area which might have been the cella.

Conservation. The problems are twofold: (a) flash floods are coming down annually and seriously undermining the site; and (b) the heavy rains are cutting gorges and gullies through the archaeological deposits.

The first problem has to be investigated by a hydraulic engineer specializing in the design of deflection dams. In the meantime a temporary rock-cage deflecting dam might be built at an angle of 30 degrees at the southern edge of the site. Water which reaches the deposits when the wadi is in flood will still have some undermining effect, as the clays are obviously partially soluble on this site. For economic reasons, steps to prevent this will have to be limited to areas known to be important.

The second problem is not easily solved. It is proposed that experiments be carried out in the use of binding grasses of the type that grows naturally in the sand-dunes. They should be placed, in the first instance, on the sloping sides of the gullies to prevent their spread. Subsequently, if the grass roots are sufficiently shallow, the whole site might be protected from surface erosion in this way.

Huraidah

The archaeological site identified as ancient Madubum was excavated in 1937-38 by a team led by G. Caton-Thompson. It is situated in Wadi 'Amd, a tributary of Wadi Hadramawt, a few kilometers north-west of the modern town of Huraidah.

The site was noticed owing to the unnatural banking of drift sand, indicating an accumulation of occupation levels. This bean- shaped sandy knoll, raised some 4 m above the silt floor of the wadi, lies in mid-plain and commands extensive views up and down the valley.

The site was noticed owing to the unnatural banking of drift sand, indicating an accumulation of occupation levels. This bean- shaped sandy knoll, raised some 4 m above the silt floor of the wadi, lies in mid-plain and commands extensive views up and down the valley.

A large structure, later identified as a temple dedicated to the moon god, Sin, was uncovered. It consisted of an oblong stone- paved platform resting on a deep layer of boulders. Few elements of the superstructure were found, but there were traces of partition walls and stone-pillar bases. Two flights of stone steps gave access to the platform. The orientation of the building follows the Mesopotamian practice of setting the corners to the four cardinal points, with the main façade looking south-west.

The original temple, dated to the fifth century B.C., had twice been extended without the destruction of its predecessors. Clustered round the podium, a series of shrines and altars was probably used after the final abandonment of the temple, some time during the Seleucid period. At present, nothing of the above-mentioned structures is visible except a few upper slabs belonging to the south façade. It is difficult to assess what the stone-robbers have left of the uncovered remains, as the site is completely covered with drift sand.

Conservation. According to the excavators' descriptions, plans and photographs, the Temple of the Moon, the first to have been excavated in South Arabia, is worth preserving. The first step should be the clearance of the site in order to expose the construction phases of the temple. This would require about two weeks' work for a team of six skilled men under the supervision of an archaeologist.

The same team should proceed immediately afterwards to the protection of the walls and other stone structures brought to light by means of a thin layer of locally made qadad or ramàd (waterproof plaster). This would help to consolidate the friable sandstones used by the builders and constitutes a necessary precaution against possible stone-quarrying. The site should subsequently be fenced, and a method of guarding it be arranged. The final preventive measure would be the stabilization of the surrounding sand-dunes by planting a thick, broad fence of specially chosen desert grass roots which are capable of growing wild.

Tombs. Eight artificial rock-cut caves are to be seen in the vicinity of the Huraidah temple. They were used as sepulchres over a considerable length of time in antiquity. Two of them were excavated thoroughly by the Caton-Thompson expedition and were dated to the same general period (fifth-third century B.C.) as the temple. The remaining six were plundered comparatively recently and are being used as shelters for sheep and goats or as storerooms. The local tribesmen should be persuaded to discontinue their harmful treasure-hunting and despoiling, and the caves should be fenced off and guarded.

Suna'a

The site lies on the eastern bank of Wadi '1dm, near the modern village bearing the same name. Flash floods and local farmers have taken a heavy toll of its structures, which consist of isolated mounds topped by stone and mud-brick walls. The site has recently been partially surveyed by the French expedition, which has exposed mud-brick walls down to a depth of 2 m below ground level.

A wadi, which is a branch of the main wadi, runs right through the site, bisecting it. This will have to be controlled by the construction of a deflection dam, and the tell consolidated by the planting of suitable grasses.

There is a hillside temple which faces due north and also looks straight down the valley at the site of Mashghah.

Mashghah

This settlement on the western bank of Wadi '1dm is only a few kilometers from Sunah. Its type and date are exactly the same but it covers a much wider area. On the whole the site is fairly well drained. The wadi passes on the east side of it and is slowly cutting into the mound a little on that side, although it is still some considerable distance from the high central monuments.

The changes in the course of the wadis will have to be studied carefully in order to establish whether they are encroaching on the site. If so, measures will have to be adopted in consultation with a hydraulic engineer to curtail this erosive action. Grasses which are suitable for binding the surface of the archaeological deposits and protecting them from erosion by rains will have to be planted.

The steps leading to the temple have been exposed by the archaeologists and include fine inscriptions. But there is some evidence, on the analogy of Timna and sites in Hadramawt, that these freshly exposed white limestone slabs may not survive very long unless careful conservation works are instituted.

Hisn al-'Urr

It is difficult to assign any precise date to the well-preserved remains of the fort which tops an isolated hill in the middle of the wadi, half-way between Tarim and al-Sawm. Hisn al-Urr appears to have been more or less continually occupied for 1,000 years, with successive garrisons always busy rebuilding the fallen walls with old blocks. The main structure stands in the north-eastern corner with a plaster-lined cistern quite close to it. The cracks in the outer stonework of the main building do not seem to threaten collapse, as there is a good batter to the walls. The cistern at the top of the Site is showing some signs of disintegration, and needs consolidation.

There is evidence of many kinds of occupation. The oldest is pre-Islamic, with a number of surviving fragments of inscriptions lying around on the site and a great deal of architectural ornament in fine-cut stones. There was apparently a temple, from which some of this material came, on the western edge of the Jebel. There seems to be a concentration of fragments of the inscriptions and of the ornament of the north side of the temple site.

Two different types of stone were used on the site, the higher ones being better cut and set in lime mortar. Great damage is being done to the buildings by the removal of the stones for breaking up and burning for lime. This will have to be prevented by installing resident guards.

Some of the original flooring or roofing slabs of fine-cut limestone are still in position at the north-east end. The same limestone slabs are found in two staircases, one going down to the lower level of the north-east building, the other leading up, apparently into a tower which has since disappeared. Both are set in lime mortar, but as they are exposed to the sun they are cracking and spalling, and need urgent conservation.

Other pre-Islamic sites

Other important pre-Islamic sites which warrant urgent conservation include the following:

Sadd al-Khalfah. This great dam distributed water for irrigation at the eastern end of the wadi.

Hisn al-Kays. This important temple site, close to the town of San'a, preserved a fine stone staircase leading up the mountain- side until sixteen years ago. Since then, however, it has been despoiled by stone-robbers and many of the fine dressed limestone treads have disappeared. Only parts of the flanking walls remain to indicate the former splendour of the staircase. The remains of the twin temples above have recently been surveyed. Fencing and guards are urgently needed.

The temple at al-Hajrah. This hillside temple complex, above an ancient town site, is one of the most interesting and well preserved of the ancient religious sanctuaries. It has recently been surveyed and now warrants proper protection.

Preliminary plan of action and estimates of cost

Phase1: 1983 -1984
Protection of major archaeological sites:

	Yemeni dinars
(a) from flooding—by construction of deflection dams, where necessary, for Mashghah, Sunah and Raybun	2,500,000
(b) from pillage or vandalization—by surrounding the sites with fences and/or introducing 24-hour guarding	500,000
(c) from the weather—by conservation of the exposed buildings	500,000
Phase 2:1984—86	-----------------
Presentation of archaeological sites to the public—by beautifying them with planting, arranging parking areas, routes through the sites and facilities for guide services	500,000

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